1 Introduction

Coral reefs are often called “the tropical rainforest in the ocean” because they feed many species of marine life. Although coral reefs account for less than 0.1% of the ocean area, they are home to about a quarter of marine species, such as fish, shrimps, crabs and other marine animals, cannot do without them (Nama, 2020). Coral reefs are not only useful to the ecology, they are also important to humans. There are hundreds of millions of people around the world who rely on them to make a living, work or live. For example, coral reefs help protect coastlines, support tourism, and provide food resources such as fish (Drury and Lirman, 2017).

They are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical oceans, with famous areas including the Great Barrier Reef, the Coral Triangle and the Caribbean (Sheikh, 2024). But now, coral reefs are facing many problems, mainly due to human activities and climate change. Such as seawater heat, ocean acidification, water pollution, random fishing and destructive fishing methods, can cause coral bleaching and even death (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017). Especially climate change has a particularly great impact on coral reefs. Some scientists predict that if the situation does not improve, most tropical reefs may disappear between 2040 and 2050.

This is not just a natural problem, it will also affect many people. There are currently about 500 million people rely on coral reefs to get food, income or coastal protection. If corals disappear, their lives will also be greatly affected (Montesny et al., 2021). This study is intended to emphasize the importance of coral reefs and illustrate how urgent the protection is. We will first introduce the distribution of coral reefs and their role in the ecology, and then talk about the main threats they are facing. Next, we will introduce some latest progress in conservation work and discuss future research directions and policy recommendations, hoping to help these valuable marine ecosystems better recover and survive.

2 Current Status and Functions of Coral Reef Ecosystems

2.1 Ecological diversity and community composition of coral reefs

Coral reefs are one of the places with the most species of organisms in the ocean. Because of its particularly abundant species, it is often called the “tropical rainforest of the ocean”. Although coral reefs account for less than 0.1% of the ocean area, they provide space for about a quarter of marine life. These organisms include various fish, shrimp, crabs, and many invertebrates (Nama, 2020). Corals, especially stony corals, can form complex structures. These structures provide “home” and food for many marine life. Different species of animals can find their own place here and form many interdependent relationships. These relationships help keep the ecosystem healthy and balanced (Principe et al., 2021). But the problem arises. Climate change and human activities have led to many coral degradation. This puts the otherwise abundant ecosystem at great threat (Nelson et al., 2016).

2.2 Functions and roles of coral reefs in marine ecosystems

Coral reefs are not just habitats in the ocean, they have many other important functions. First, it provides food and shelter for various marine animals. At the same time, coral reefs are also involved in energy flow and nutrient circulation in the ocean. In this system, there are many interactions between microorganisms, sponges, benthic animals, etc. For example, a sponge absorbs organic matter from water and then releases small molecules. These small molecules can be used by microorganisms. Then, microorganisms become food for larger animals, which forms a cycle. This process is called "sponge ring". It helps coral reefs maintain high biodiversity and yields in water with little nutrients. In addition, microorganisms play two roles in coral reefs. Some are good for corals, such as helping them grow; but some may become pathogens when corals are stressed, causing disease or coral bleaching (Figure 1) (Vanwonterghem and Webster, 2020). Even if the coral dies, the skeleton structure it leaves behind can keep some invertebrates living there. However, if these structures are destroyed, biodiversity will also decline. Research has found that marine protected areas can make coral reef systems stronger by protecting fish populations and species. Especially some fish that eat seaweed can help control algae growth and give corals a better living space (Topor et al., 2019).

2.3 Contributions of coral reefs to coastal communities and economies

Coral reefs are very important to people in many coastal areas. The services they provide include: preventing coastal erosion, providing fish resources, attracting tourists, etc. Millions of people around the world rely on coral reefs to survive. But now, issues such as climate change, pollution and overfishing are degrading coral reefs. Once the coral system collapses, many people who rely on it may lose their jobs, causing local economic difficulties and social problems (Hoegh‐Guldberg et al., 2017). Therefore, it is very important to protect the diversity and ecological functions of corals. Only in this way can we ensure that these ecosystems continue to provide services that help humanity (Ng et al., 2022).

3 Theoretical and Scientific Foundations of Coral Reef Ecosystems

3.1 Coral symbiosis theory

Corals can grow healthily, a large part of the reason they establish symbiotic relationships with some small algae called dinoflagellates. These algae belong to the family Symbiodiniaceae, which live in corals. These small algae can perform photosynthesis, convert sunlight into nutrients, and then provide them to corals. With these nutrients, corals can calcify, that is, build their own “skeleton” and help coral reefs grow little by little (Weis, 2019; Keeling et al., 2021). However, this partnership is fragile. If the sea water is too hot or the environment becomes worse, this symbiosis will be interrupted. As a result, corals lose color (bleaching) and even slowly die (Bove et al., 2022). To protect corals, we must first figure out how they cooperate with symbiotic algae, and we must understand them clearly from the cellular to the molecular level.

3.2 Principles of coral reef ecology

Coral reefs are an ecosystem with a lot of biological species and very complex relationships. In this system, reef-making corals are the foundation. They have established relationships with many marine organisms, such as sponges, bryozoans and other cnidaria. These interactions help keep the whole system balanced and also make the reef more “resilient” in the face of damage (Montano, 2020). Scientists have a word called “coral holobiont”, which refers to the coral itself plus various microorganisms on it. This overall is important for coral health and determines whether it can adapt to environmental changes (Bourne et al., 2016; Putnam et al., 2017). So, figuring out how these organisms interact is very helpful for us to understand the ecological function of coral reefs and how they cope with stress.

3.3 Coral adaptation and evolutionary theories

Now, many studies are focusing on one question: Can corals adapt to climate change ? The sea water temperatures are getting higher and higher, and if the corals cannot adapt, they will become extinct. Therefore, scientists have used many ecological-evolutionary models to study whether corals have this ability (Cropp and Norbury, 2020). Research has found that corals and their symbiotic algae can adapt to the new environment to a certain extent, so that the entire ecosystem has the opportunity to hold on. Moreover, symbiotic relations play a big role in this process. It not only provides nutrition, but may also help corals fight environmental stress. Therefore, if we want to improve the resilience of corals, we cannot ignore these symbiotic microorganisms (Apprill, 2020). To predict the future of corals or to develop conservation plans, you must first understand how they adapt to changes.

4 Major Challenges Facing Coral Reefs

4.1 Impacts of climate change and ocean acidification

One of the biggest problems coral reefs face now is climate change and ocean acidification. These two problems are mainly because humans emit too much carbon dioxide. The more carbon dioxide, the higher the sea water temperature and the more acidic it is. This will make the coral very fragile. In many places, such as the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, large areas of coral bleaching occurs because of the heat of the sea water (Harvey et al., 2018). Scientists predict that if we do not control greenhouse gas emissions, most of the global tropical coral reefs may disappear between 2040 and 2050. Worse, corals evolve slowly and their environments get too fast, so they simply don’t have time to adapt (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2017).

4.2 Overfishing and destructive fishing practices

Too much fishing is also hurting coral reefs, especially some destructive fishing methods, such as fried fish and poisonous fish. Not only does it catch all the fish, it also directly blows up the coral reefs or tramples. Some fish, such as herbivorous carp, are “cleaners” who help corals control seaweed. But these fish are caught too much, and seaweed grows wildly, so the corals cannot survive (Ahmad et al., 2021; Wilkins et al., 2021). The study also found that as the number of fish decreases, small corals (juvenile corals) also decreases. This can make it difficult to recover from coral reefs, especially after being hit by storms or pollution (Steneck et al., 2018). We need to promote sustainable fishing methods and establish marine protected areas (MPAs) to reduce these problems.

4.3 Marine pollution (plastic waste, chemical discharges, etc.)

Marine pollution, especially plastic waste and chemicals, also seriously threatens the health of corals. Plastic sticks to the coral to block the sun. Chemicals can directly poison corals. These make corals more prone to illness and harder to recover (Morais et al., 2018). In some countries, such as Pakistan, pollution is already one of the main causes of coral reduction. To protect corals, we must find ways to reduce the source of pollution, such as treating wastewater and reducing marine garbage (Yang, 2020).

4.4 Coral diseases and invasive species

In addition to natural changes, environmental stress caused by humans also brings problems with coral diseases and invasive species. When the environmental pressure becomes greater, such as the water temperature rises, corals are more likely to get sick. Sometimes diseases can erupt on a large scale, causing the death of the entire coral (Sheikh, 2024). Foreign creatures may also rob coral space or resources, preventing local planting from surviving and disrupting the original ecological balance. To solve these problems, we need to establish a monitoring mechanism to detect and deal with them early. Control measures must also be formulated to prevent the spread of diseases and to control the number of invasive organisms (Good and Bahr, 2021).

5 Technologies and Innovations in Coral Reef Protection and Restoration

5.1 Artificial reef construction and coral transplantation techniques

Since the 1980s, people have tried to use artificial coral reefs (ARs) to help protect and restore corals. Simply put, it is to place some artificial structures in the sea so that corals and other organisms can attach to them to grow. These artificial structures can be used as “nurses” to give corals a chance to grow again. They can also provide habitat for other organisms such as fish. However, many times, due to unreasonable design or the seawater becomes hot, the effect of artificial coral reefs is not stable (Higgins et al., 2022).

5.2 Genetic engineering and research on coral heat resistance

Genetic engineering and assisted evolution are becoming promising strategies to enhance coral resilience to climate change. Technologies such as selective breeding, assisted gene flow, and manipulation of coral microbiota are designed to improve coral heat resistance and compressive resistance. Although these methods are still in the research stage, they have potential in improving coral coverage and adapting to warming, although their long-term effectiveness is uncertain (DeFilippo et al., 2022). Selecting and reproducing heat-tolerant coral phenotypes is crucial because these corals are more resistant to bleaching events and contribute to future reef communities (Caruso et al., 2021).

5.3 Coral propagation and juvenile cultivation techniques

Another method is to artificially cultivate coral larvae. It is to raise corals from a young age in a laboratory or breeding area and then move them back to the damaged sea area. This practice can enhance the number of corals and also make the reefs healthier. However, if you want to see obvious results, this method takes a long time and a lot of manpower investment, and it must be done on a large scale to be effective. At present, some teams are trying to develop small-scale rapid coral planting methods and have achieved some good results in small areas of water. But how to promote these methods to a larger range is still a big challenge.

5.4 Monitoring coral reefs using remote sensing and AI

Now, people are starting to use a lot of new technologies to monitor and protect coral reefs. Drones, underwater robots (AUVs), and high-resolution satellite images are becoming more and more common. These tools can help us draw more accurately the location and state of coral reefs, and can also help scientists model and analyze. This is helpful for both sustainable fisheries and conservation measures. However, these technologies also have some problems. For example: The equipment is expensive and requires professional operation, and it is inconvenient to use in some places (Madin et al., 2019). Therefore, we still need to find ways to solve these obstacles so that more places can use these technologies. In addition, remote sensing technology coupled with artificial intelligence (AI) is also particularly useful for understanding coral health status and environmental changes. They can provide a large amount of real-time data that helps us make management decisions more scientifically (Wilkins et al., 2021).

6 Case Studies

6.1 Great barrier reef (Australia) - responses to coral bleaching under climate change

The Great Barrier Reef is the largest coral reef system in the world. It is now being severely affected by climate change, especially coral bleaching caused by rising sea water. The Great Barrier Reef has experienced several large-scale albinisms in the past few years. Many corals have died and the ecosystem has changed. Some images clearly show how corals respond to high temperatures at different stages: their gene expression changes in a short period of time, and in the long run, the entire coral community will be recombined (Stuart-Smith et al., 2018; Van Woesik et al., 2022). Without adaptability, corals will become less and less, and the coverage rate will continue to decline. But if it is a coral with a certain amount of heat resistance, they will recover slightly better. Although the recovery speed is slow, these corals can still maintain a certain number. This shows that human intervention, such as protection measures and restoration projects, can help corals adapt to high temperatures and may also delay coral reef degradation. From the perspective of individual corals, the response to heat in different months and seasons is different. High temperatures can affect coral photosynthesis, energy reserves, calcification rate and reproduction. When whitening, they consume energy stored in the body and stop reproduction and growth. Only when the water temperature drops will their functions slowly recover. In addition to temperatures, the Great Barrier Reef also faces other pressures, such as hurricanes and deteriorating water quality (nutrient loss). These problems will make the original high temperature pressure worse. However, some management methods, such as reducing pollution, protecting coastal ecology, and promoting emission reduction, have shown certain effects and contributed to improving coral resilience (Figure 2) (Wolff et al., 2018). But it should be noted that if the high temperature continues, even the “heat-resistant coral” may not be able to hold on.

6.2 Tablas strait (Philippines) - collaborative governance of fisheries and coral reef restoration

There are many types of coral reefs in the Philippines, especially the Tabras Strait. But these places are also under threat from multiple aspects, including climate change, overfishing and coastal construction (Sheikh, 2024). To solve these problems, local communities, governments, and some non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have joined forces to manage these seas. They did several things: such as establishing marine protected areas (MPAs) to prevent random fishing; and such as using artificial coral reefs and coral transplantation methods to repair damaged areas. This "everyone does it together" approach not only gives corals a chance to recover, but also helps maintain sustainable fisheries and allow resources in the sea to continue to serve locals.

6.3 Maldives coral restoration project-successful implementation of artificial coral restoration technologies

The Maldives are surrounded by the sea, and coral reefs are very important here. But now, it is also threatened by the heat and acidity of the sea. To solve this problem, the Maldives vigorously promoted artificial coral restoration. They used technologies such as coral transplantation and artificial reef construction to help corals grow again and attracted many marine organisms to come back. These practices have worked well, successfully revitalizing some coral areas and improving biodiversity. More importantly, this practice also protects local economies that rely on tourism and fisheries for their living (Jiang and Xu, 2024). The experience of the Maldives provides a good example for other countries, showing that technology can become a good helper for coral restoration as long as the methods are right.

7 Socioeconomic Dimensions of Coral Reef Conservation

7.1 The role of community engagement and traditional ecological knowledge in coral reef protection

Protecting coral reefs is not enough to rely on experts, and the participation of local communities is also important. Many fishermen and residents are very familiar with the sea around them. They know where the corals are good and where there are many problems. These experiences, also called traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), can help scientists understand environmental conditions more accurately. If this knowledge can be combined with modern methods, the protection effect will be better. For example in Pakistan, governments, NGOs and communities work together to protect local coral reefs through publicity activities and participation in management (Ahmad et al., 2024). Once communities participate in the management of marine protected areas (MPAs), they are more willing to follow the rules because it is related to their own interests and future (Wilkins et al., 2021).

7.2 The role and potential negative impacts of ecotourism on coral reef conservation

Ecotourism can also help protect corals. When tourists come, they will bring income and will allow more people to understand the importance of coral reefs. For example, the “Reefscapers Project” in the Maldives and the “New Paradise Coral Reef Conservation Program” in Thailand have helped rehabilitate coral reefs, which not only saves costs but also improves restoration efficiency (Hein et al., 2018). However, if the management is not good, too many tourists will also cause trouble. It’s like trampling on corals, throwing garbage, and even destroying local culture. Sometimes tourism companies ignore ecological protection in order to make money (Lachs and Oñate-Casado, 2019). Therefore, sustainable tourism should be promoted. On the one hand, we must reduce the damage to the environment, and on the other hand, we must let everyone learn something and bring economic benefits through tourism.

7.3 Balancing sustainable development and coral reef resource management

Balancing sustainable development with coral reef resource management requires a strategic approach that takes into account ecological and socioeconomic factors into consideration. The coexistence of fisheries and tourism is crucial to maintaining local livelihoods and protecting coral reefs. Strategies such as ecosystem management (EBM) and adaptive co-management can help achieve this balance, meeting conservation needs and promoting socio-economic goals such as employment security and cultural protection (Kleypas et al., 2021). Marine space planning (MSP) and the establishment of marine protected areas can manage human activities and protect critical coral reef areas, as demonstrated by the experience of successful integration of conservation and human activities in the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (Bellwood et al., 2019). These approaches emphasize that alignment of development goals with conservation priorities is critical to ensuring long-term sustainability of coral reef ecosystems.

8 Future Directions and Prospects for Coral Reef Conservation

8.1 Strengthening international cooperation and cross-regional protection measures

Coral reefs are distributed in the waters of many different countries. To truly protect them, cooperation among countries is important. Now, many places have begun to establish marine protected areas (MPAs). The global goal is to protect at least 30% of marine areas by 2030 (Wilkins et al., 2021). But in reality, some MPAs are short of money or are not strict in management, and the results are not ideal. Therefore, cross-border cooperation is even more important, and it can help solve problems such as funding, law enforcement, and technology. In addition, some protected areas may be too far from the source of threat to protect critical areas. Cross-regional management can make the scope of protection more matched with practical issues (Bellwood et al., 2019).

8.2 Long-term strategies and carbon reduction policies to address climate change

To fundamentally protect corals, mitigating climate change is key. This means we have to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Global agreements like the Paris Agreement are intended to promote emission reductions between countries. Only when global efforts work together can the harm to coral reefs be mitigated (Montseny et al., 2021). Because future climate change is full of uncertainty, we still need to make long-term plans. Some coral reefs are highly adaptable to environmental changes and can be protected with priority. They may become “seed sources” in other degraded areas in the future, helping to recover ecologically (Beyer et al., 2018).

8.3 Potential applications of emerging technologies in coral reef conservation

Nowadays, many new technologies are being tried for coral protection. For example, scientists are studying how to make corals more heat-resistant and stress-resistant through selective breeding or microbial regulation (Van Oppen et al., 2017). There are also some methods, such as artificial planting of corals and building artificial reefs, which are also helping to recover rapidly in degraded areas (Montseny et al., 2021). These new technologies, if combined with traditional protection methods, may become new solutions to the coral reef problem.

8.4 The role of citizen science and public education in coral reef protection

In addition to scientists and policy makers, ordinary people can also contribute to the protection of corals. Methods like Citizen Science encourage everyone to participate in data collection and marine protection, which can enhance people's sense of belonging and responsibility. If the community can participate in the formulation and implementation of protection policies, such as helping manage MPA, the results are often better (Wilkins et al., 2021). At the same time, public education activities are also very important. They can help more people understand corals, develop environmental awareness, and support sustainable practices. Only when everyone acts together can the future of coral reefs be more promising.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his sincere gratitude to the research team for providing revision suggestions after multiple reviews of this paper. At the same time, he also thanks the two anonymous peer reviewers for their suggestions on this paper.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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